Difference between revisions of "Language/Sindhi/Grammar/Verbs-and-Tenses"

Latest revision as of 17:40, 22 June 2023

◀️ Adjectives and Adverbs — Previous Lesson	Next Lesson — Prepositions and Conjunctions ▶️

Sindhi → Grammar → 0 to A1 Course → Basic Grammar Concepts → Verbs and Tenses

Introduction[edit | edit source]

Welcome to the lesson on Sindhi verbs and tenses! In this lesson, we will explore the different forms of Sindhi verbs, the various tenses used in the Sindhi language, and how to form and use them in sentences. Understanding verbs and tenses is essential for building accurate and meaningful sentences in Sindhi. By the end of this lesson, you will have a solid foundation in Sindhi verb conjugation and be able to express actions in the past, present, and future with ease. Let's dive in!

Sindhi Verbs: An Overview[edit | edit source]

Verbs are an integral part of any language, and Sindhi is no exception. In Sindhi, verbs are words that express actions, occurrences, or states of being. They are the powerhouse of sentences, allowing us to convey information about what is happening or has happened. Sindhi verbs can be conjugated to match the subject of the sentence, indicating the person, number, and gender of the subject.

Sindhi verbs have three principal forms: the infinitive, the present participle, and the past participle. The infinitive form of a verb represents the base form of the verb, and it is usually the form that is found in dictionaries. The present participle form is used to express ongoing or continuous actions, while the past participle form is used to express completed or finished actions.

Let's take a look at an example to understand the different forms of Sindhi verbs:

Sindhi	Pronunciation	English
کندڙ	kandar	to read
کندڙندڙ	kandarindar	reading
پڙھڻو	parhinjo	read

In the above example, "کندڙ" (kandar) represents the infinitive form of the verb "to read." "کندڙندڙ" (kandarindar) represents the present participle form of the verb "reading," and "پڙھڻو" (parhinjo) represents the past participle form of the verb "read."

Now that we have a basic understanding of Sindhi verbs, let's explore the different tenses used in Sindhi and how to conjugate verbs accordingly.

Tenses in Sindhi[edit | edit source]

Tenses in Sindhi are used to indicate the time of an action or event. There are three main tenses in Sindhi: the present tense, the past tense, and the future tense. Each tense has its own set of conjugation rules and markers that indicate the time of the action or event.

Present Tense[edit | edit source]

The present tense is used to describe actions or events that are happening now or are ongoing. In Sindhi, the present tense is formed by adding specific markers to the verb stem. The markers vary depending on the subject of the sentence. Let's take a look at some examples:

Singular Subjects[edit | edit source]

When the subject of the sentence is singular, the present tense marker is added directly to the verb stem. Here are some examples:

Sindhi	Pronunciation	English
۾وڻ	miyo	I eat
۾ڏڻ	tu	You eat
۾ڏڻ	aahe	He/She eats

In the above examples, the present tense marker "وڻ" (yo) is added to the verb stem "ڏڻ" (dhan) to form the present tense.

When the subject of the sentence is plural, the present tense marker changes. Here are some examples:

Plural Subjects[edit | edit source]

Sindhi	Pronunciation	English
۾ڏون	asan	We eat
۾ڏين	tusan	You all eat
۾ڏين	aahin	They eat

In the above examples, the present tense marker "ون" (un) is added to the verb stem "ڏڻ" (dhan) to form the present tense for plural subjects.

Past Tense[edit | edit source]

The past tense is used to describe actions or events that have already happened. In Sindhi, the past tense is formed by adding specific markers to the verb stem. The markers vary depending on the subject of the sentence. Let's take a look at some examples:

Singular Subjects[edit | edit source]

When the subject of the sentence is singular, the past tense marker is added directly to the verb stem. Here are some examples:

Sindhi	Pronunciation	English
ڏيڻو	me	I ate
ڏيڻو	tu	You ate
ڏيڻو	aahe	He/She ate

In the above examples, the past tense marker "ڻو" (no) is added to the verb stem "ڏيڻ" (dhan) to form the past tense.

When the subject of the sentence is plural, the past tense marker changes. Here are some examples:

Plural Subjects[edit | edit source]

Sindhi	Pronunciation	English
ڏيڻا	asi	We ate
ڏيڻا	tusi	You all ate
ڏيڻا	aahin	They ate

In the above examples, the past tense marker "ڻا" (na) is added to the verb stem "ڏيڻ" (dhan) to form the past tense for plural subjects.

Future Tense[edit | edit source]

The future tense is used to describe actions or events that will happen in the future. In Sindhi, the future tense is formed by adding specific markers to the verb stem. The markers vary depending on the subject of the sentence. Let's take a look at some examples:

Singular Subjects[edit | edit source]

When the subject of the sentence is singular, the future tense marker is added directly to the verb stem. Here are some examples:

Sindhi	Pronunciation	English
ڪريان	me	I will eat
ڪريان	tu	You will eat
ڪريان	aahe	He/She will eat

In the above examples, the future tense marker "يان" (yan) is added to the verb stem "ڪري" (kari) to form the future tense.

When the subject of the sentence is plural, the future tense marker changes. Here are some examples:

Plural Subjects[edit | edit source]

Sindhi	Pronunciation	English
ڪريان	asi	We will eat
ڪريان	tusi	You all will eat
ڪريان	aahin	They will eat

In the above examples, the future tense marker "يان" (yan) is added to the verb stem "ڪري" (kari) to form the future tense for plural subjects.

Cultural Insights[edit | edit source]

Sindhi, being a rich and diverse language, has regional variations in the usage and understanding of verbs and tenses. These variations can be attributed to historical reasons and cultural influences. For example, in certain regions of Sindh, the present tense marker for singular subjects is "وان" (aan) instead of "وڻ" (yo). Similarly, the past tense marker for plural subjects is "ڻاڻ" (nana) in some regions.

Interesting Fact: Sindhi verbs are known for their flexibility and adaptability. They can be easily modified to convey different nuances and shades of meaning. This linguistic feature allows Sindhi speakers to express themselves with precision and subtlety.

Practice Exercises[edit | edit source]

Now it's time to put your knowledge of Sindhi verbs and tenses into practice! Use the following exercises to reinforce what you've learned. Solutions and explanations are provided at the end.

Exercise 1: Conjugate the verb "ڪرڻو" (karhanjo) in the present tense for the following subjects: I, you (singular), he/she, we, you all, they.

Exercise 2: Conjugate the verb "سڏڻو" (sathhanjo) in the past tense for the following subjects: I, you (singular), he/she, we, you all, they.

Exercise 3: Conjugate the verb "ڪريان" (kariyan) in the future tense for the following subjects: I, you (singular), he/she, we, you all, they.

Solutions and Explanations[edit | edit source]

Exercise 1: - I eat: ۾ڏڻو (miyo) - You eat (singular): ۾ڏڻو (tu) - He/She eats: ۾ڏڻو (aahe) - We eat: ۾ڏون (asan) - You all eat: ۾ڏين (tusan) - They eat: ۾ڏين (aahin)

Exercise 2: - I ate: ڏيڻو (me) - You ate (singular): ڏيڻو (tu) - He/She ate: ڏيڻو (aahe) - We ate: ڏيڻا (asi) - You all ate: ڏيڻا (tusi) - They ate: ڏيڻا (aahin)

Exercise 3: - I will eat: ڪريان (me) - You will eat (singular): ڪريان (tu) - He/She will eat: ڪريان (aahe) - We will eat: ڪريان (asi) - You all will eat: ڪريان (tusi) - They will eat: ڪريان (aahin)

Explanation: In Sindhi, verb conjugation involves adding specific markers to the verb stem to indicate the subject and tense. The markers change depending on the subject and tense of the sentence. By practicing these exercises, you are reinforcing your understanding of Sindhi verb conjugation and becoming more proficient in using verbs and tenses in sentences.

Conclusion[edit | edit source]

Congratulations! You have successfully completed the lesson on Sindhi verbs and tenses. You have learned about the different forms of Sindhi verbs, the present, past, and future tenses, and how to conjugate verbs accordingly. By mastering these concepts, you are well on your way to becoming a proficient Sindhi speaker. Keep practicing and exploring the Sindhi language, and soon you will be able to express yourself fluently in Sindhi.

Table of Contents - Sindhi Course - 0 to A1[edit source]

Course Presentation

Introduction to Sindhi Script

Everyday Vocabulary

Basic Grammar Concepts

Everyday Situations

More Grammar Concepts

Culture and Traditions

Advanced Grammar Concepts

Sources[edit | edit source]

Other Lessons[edit | edit source]

◀️ Adjectives and Adverbs — Previous Lesson	Next Lesson — Prepositions and Conjunctions ▶️

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 <span pgnav>
 {| class="wikitable pg_template_nav"
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 {{Sindhi-Page-Top}}
 <div class="pg_page_title">[[Language/Sindhi|Sindhi]]  → [[Language/Sindhi/Grammar|Grammar]] → [[Language/Sindhi/Grammar/0-to-A1-Course|0 to A1 Course]] → Basic Grammar Concepts → Verbs and Tenses</div>
@@ Line 15: / Line 15: @@
 == Introduction ==
-In this lesson, we will learn about Sindhi verbs and tenses. Verbs are a crucial part of any language and in Sindhi, they can be both complex and fascinating. At the end of this lesson, you will have a better understanding of how verbs work in Sindhi, their different forms and tenses, and how to use them in a sentence.
+Welcome to the lesson on Sindhi verbs and tenses! In this lesson, we will explore the different forms of Sindhi verbs, the various tenses used in the Sindhi language, and how to form and use them in sentences. Understanding verbs and tenses is essential for building accurate and meaningful sentences in Sindhi. By the end of this lesson, you will have a solid foundation in Sindhi verb conjugation and be able to express actions in the past, present, and future with ease. Let's dive in!
-== Verbs in Sindhi ==
-In Sindhi, verbs are used to show an action or a state of being. They can be modified to reflect different tenses, moods, and voices. Verbs can also be used as auxiliary verbs in compound tenses or to create different forms, such as causative or reflexive verbs.
-=== Verb Forms ===
+== Sindhi Verbs: An Overview ==
-In Sindhi, verbs are conjugated to reflect different grammatical aspects like tense, person, and number. There are three major forms of verbs in Sindhi:
+Verbs are an integral part of any language, and Sindhi is no exception. In Sindhi, verbs are words that express actions, occurrences, or states of being. They are the powerhouse of sentences, allowing us to convey information about what is happening or has happened. Sindhi verbs can be conjugated to match the subject of the sentence, indicating the person, number, and gender of the subject.
-* The root form (infinitive)
+Sindhi verbs have three principal forms: the infinitive, the present participle, and the past participle. The infinitive form of a verb represents the base form of the verb, and it is usually the form that is found in dictionaries. The present participle form is used to express ongoing or continuous actions, while the past participle form is used to express completed or finished actions.
-* The imperfect or present form
-* The past or perfect form
-The root form is also known as the infinitive form of a verb. This is the base or original form of a verb, and it usually ends in "-N" or "-WAN". For example:
+Let's take a look at an example to understand the different forms of Sindhi verbs:
 {| class="wikitable"
 ! Sindhi !! Pronunciation !! English
 |-
-| قراڻ || qurāṇ || to read
+| کندڙ || kandar || to read
+|-
+| کندڙندڙ || kandarindar || reading
+|-
+| پڙھڻو || parhinjo || read
 |}
-The imperfect or present form is used to describe actions happening in the present. This form of the verb does not indicate if the action is continuous or not. To form the imperfect tense, add the suffix "-ANDO" to the root form. For example:
+In the above example, "کندڙ" (kandar) represents the infinitive form of the verb "to read." "کندڙندڙ" (kandarindar) represents the present participle form of the verb "reading," and "پڙھڻو" (parhinjo) represents the past participle form of the verb "read."
+Now that we have a basic understanding of Sindhi verbs, let's explore the different tenses used in Sindhi and how to conjugate verbs accordingly.
+== Tenses in Sindhi ==
+Tenses in Sindhi are used to indicate the time of an action or event. There are three main tenses in Sindhi: the present tense, the past tense, and the future tense. Each tense has its own set of conjugation rules and markers that indicate the time of the action or event.
+=== Present Tense ===
+The present tense is used to describe actions or events that are happening now or are ongoing. In Sindhi, the present tense is formed by adding specific markers to the verb stem. The markers vary depending on the subject of the sentence. Let's take a look at some examples:
+==== Singular Subjects ====
+When the subject of the sentence is singular, the present tense marker is added directly to the verb stem. Here are some examples:
 {| class="wikitable"
 ! Sindhi !! Pronunciation !! English
 |-
-| قراڻ-اندو || qurāṇ-ando || I am reading
+| ۾وڻ || miyo || I eat
+|-
+| ۾ڏڻ || tu || You eat
+|-
+| ۾ڏڻ || aahe || He/She eats
 |}
-The past or perfect form is used to describe actions that have already happened in the past. To form the past tense, add the suffix "-AYA" to the root form. For example:
+In the above examples, the present tense marker "وڻ" (yo) is added to the verb stem "ڏڻ" (dhan) to form the present tense.
+When the subject of the sentence is plural, the present tense marker changes. Here are some examples:
+==== Plural Subjects ====
 {| class="wikitable"
 ! Sindhi !! Pronunciation !! English
 |-
-| قراڻ-ايا || qurāṇ-āya || I read
+| ۾ڏون || asan || We eat
+|-
+| ۾ڏين || tusan || You all eat
+|-
+| ۾ڏين || aahin || They eat
 |}
-=== Tenses ===
+In the above examples, the present tense marker "ون" (un) is added to the verb stem "ڏڻ" (dhan) to form the present tense for plural subjects.
+=== Past Tense ===
-In Sindhi, there are three major tenses: present, past, and future. Each tense is used to describe an action in relation to its occurrence in time.
+The past tense is used to describe actions or events that have already happened. In Sindhi, the past tense is formed by adding specific markers to the verb stem. The markers vary depending on the subject of the sentence. Let's take a look at some examples:
-==== Present Tense ====
+==== Singular Subjects ====
-The present tense is used to describe an action that is happening at the moment or a state of being. To form the present tense, add the suffix "-ANDO" to the root form of the verb. For example:
+When the subject of the sentence is singular, the past tense marker is added directly to the verb stem. Here are some examples:
 {| class="wikitable"
 ! Sindhi !! Pronunciation !! English
 |-
-| ٽيڪ تائين ناپين-اندو || ṭīk tā'īn nāpīn-ando || I am checking the measurement
+| ڏيڻو || me || I ate
+|-
+| ڏيڻو || tu || You ate
+|-
+| ڏيڻو || aahe || He/She ate
 |}
-==== Past Tense ====
+In the above examples, the past tense marker "ڻو" (no) is added to the verb stem "ڏيڻ" (dhan) to form the past tense.
+When the subject of the sentence is plural, the past tense marker changes. Here are some examples:
-The past tense is used to describe actions that have already happened in the past. To form the past tense, add the suffix "-AYA" to the root form of the verb. For example:
+==== Plural Subjects ====
 {| class="wikitable"
 ! Sindhi !! Pronunciation !! English
 |-
-| اکي پوڻ ٿيل آهي || akī pōṇ ṭēl āhī || he broke the bowl
+| ڏيڻا || asi || We ate
+|-
+| ڏيڻا || tusi || You all ate
+|-
+| ڏيڻا || aahin || They ate
 |}
-==== Future Tense ====
+In the above examples, the past tense marker "ڻا" (na) is added to the verb stem "ڏيڻ" (dhan) to form the past tense for plural subjects.
+=== Future Tense ===
+The future tense is used to describe actions or events that will happen in the future. In Sindhi, the future tense is formed by adding specific markers to the verb stem. The markers vary depending on the subject of the sentence. Let's take a look at some examples:
-The future tense is used to describe an action that will happen in the future. To form the future tense, add the auxiliary verb "thio" ("will") before the verb in the root form. For example:
+==== Singular Subjects ====
+When the subject of the sentence is singular, the future tense marker is added directly to the verb stem. Here are some examples:
 {| class="wikitable"
 ! Sindhi !! Pronunciation !! English
 |-
-| سڀني جي جوتي پوچن ٿي ٿيِن || sabhnī jī jutī pōchin ṭī thin || I will wash everyone's shoes
+| ڪريان || me || I will eat
+|-
+| ڪريان || tu || You will eat
+|-
+| ڪريان || aahe || He/She will eat
 |}
-=== Moods ===
+In the above examples, the future tense marker "يان" (yan) is added to the verb stem "ڪري" (kari) to form the future tense.
-In Sindhi, there are three major moods: indicative, imperative, and subjunctive. Each mood is used to communicate different levels of certainty of the action's occurrence.
-==== Indicative Mood ====
+When the subject of the sentence is plural, the future tense marker changes. Here are some examples:
-The indicative mood is used to express factual information or to ask questions. This mood is also used for reporting, narrating, or describing actions. For example:
+==== Plural Subjects ====
 {| class="wikitable"
 ! Sindhi !! Pronunciation !! English
 |-
-| ٻنهنجو ڪتاب پڻ سزائي ۾ خريدندو آهن || bheṇhijō kitāb pēn szā'ī mēn kharīdandō āhun || They are buying my book in penalties.
+| ڪريان || asi || We will eat
+|-
+| ڪريان || tusi || You all will eat
+|-
+| ڪريان || aahin || They will eat
 |}
-==== Imperative Mood ====
+In the above examples, the future tense marker "يان" (yan) is added to the verb stem "ڪري" (kari) to form the future tense for plural subjects.
+== Cultural Insights ==
+Sindhi, being a rich and diverse language, has regional variations in the usage and understanding of verbs and tenses. These variations can be attributed to historical reasons and cultural influences. For example, in certain regions of Sindh, the present tense marker for singular subjects is "وان" (aan) instead of "وڻ" (yo). Similarly, the past tense marker for plural subjects is "ڻاڻ" (nana) in some regions.
+Interesting Fact: Sindhi verbs are known for their flexibility and adaptability. They can be easily modified to convey different nuances and shades of meaning. This linguistic feature allows Sindhi speakers to express themselves with precision and subtlety.
+== Practice Exercises ==
-The imperative mood is used to give commands or make requests. To form the imperative mood, use the root form of the verb. For example:
+Now it's time to put your knowledge of Sindhi verbs and tenses into practice! Use the following exercises to reinforce what you've learned. Solutions and explanations are provided at the end.
-{| class="wikitable"
+Exercise 1: Conjugate the verb "ڪرڻو" (karhanjo) in the present tense for the following subjects: I, you (singular), he/she, we, you all, they.
-! Sindhi !! Pronunciation !! English
-|-
-| انڪائو || inkā'ō!|| Listen!
-|}
-==== Subjunctive Mood ====
+Exercise 2: Conjugate the verb "سڏڻو" (sathhanjo) in the past tense for the following subjects: I, you (singular), he/she, we, you all, they.
-The subjunctive mood is used to express wishes, doubts, and hypothetical situations. To form the subjunctive mood, add the suffix "-CHHO" to the root form of the verb. For example:
+Exercise 3: Conjugate the verb "ڪريان" (kariyan) in the future tense for the following subjects: I, you (singular), he/she, we, you all, they.
-{| class="wikitable"
+== Solutions and Explanations ==
-! Sindhi !! Pronunciation !! English
-|-
-| الله هٽي ڪري سدڙيه || Allāh haṭī kari sadaṛe || May Allah grant you success
-|}
-=== Voices ===
+Exercise 1:
+- I eat: ۾ڏڻو (miyo)
+- You eat (singular): ۾ڏڻو (tu)
+- He/She eats: ۾ڏڻو (aahe)
+- We eat: ۾ڏون (asan)
+- You all eat: ۾ڏين (tusan)
+- They eat: ۾ڏين (aahin)
-In Sindhi, there are two voices: active and passive. The active voice is the default form of a verb, where the subject is doing the action. The passive voice is used when the subject undergoes the action.
+Exercise 2:
+- I ate: ڏيڻو (me)
+- You ate (singular): ڏيڻو (tu)
+- He/She ate: ڏيڻو (aahe)
+- We ate: ڏيڻا (asi)
+- You all ate: ڏيڻا (tusi)
+- They ate: ڏيڻا (aahin)
-To form the passive voice, use the auxiliary verb "JOTHE" before the verb in the past tense form. For example:
+Exercise 3:
+- I will eat: ڪريان (me)
+- You will eat (singular): ڪريان (tu)
+- He/She will eat: ڪريان (aahe)
+- We will eat: ڪريان (asi)
+- You all will eat: ڪريان (tusi)
+- They will eat: ڪريان (aahin)
-{| class="wikitable"
+Explanation: In Sindhi, verb conjugation involves adding specific markers to the verb stem to indicate the subject and tense. The markers change depending on the subject and tense of the sentence. By practicing these exercises, you are reinforcing your understanding of Sindhi verb conjugation and becoming more proficient in using verbs and tenses in sentences.
-! Sindhi !! Pronunciation !! English
-|-
-| اسان کي سيال چونڊيلو گٺو ٿا || asān kī siyāl chōndēlo ghaṭō ṭā || We were given clean water.
-|}
 == Conclusion ==
-In this lesson, we have learned about the different forms and tenses of Sindhi verbs. We have also explored the moods and voices that are used to express different levels of certainty and action. Verbs are a fundamental aspect of any language, and in Sindhi, they can be both complex and fascinating. Keep practicing and exploring new vocabulary, and soon you will feel more comfortable with Sindhi verbs and tenses. Good luck!
+Congratulations! You have successfully completed the lesson on Sindhi verbs and tenses. You have learned about the different forms of Sindhi verbs, the present, past, and future tenses, and how to conjugate verbs accordingly. By mastering these concepts, you are well on your way to becoming a proficient Sindhi speaker. Keep practicing and exploring the Sindhi language, and soon you will be able to express yourself fluently in Sindhi.
 {{#seo:
-|title=Sindhi Grammar Basic Grammar Concepts Verbs and Tenses
+|title=Sindhi Grammar → Basic Grammar Concepts → Verbs and Tenses
-|keywords=Sindhi Grammar, Basic Grammar Concepts, Verbs, Tenses, verbs in Sindhi
+|keywords=Sindhi grammar, Sindhi verbs, Sindhi tenses, Sindhi verb conjugation, Sindhi language
-|description=In this lesson, you will learn about Sindhi verbs, their forms, different tenses, and how to form and use them in sentences. At least 3000 words. The lesson belongs to "Complete 0 to A1 Sindhi Course".
+|description=In this lesson, you will learn about Sindhi verbs, their forms, different tenses, and how to form and use them in sentences. Explore the cultural insights and practice exercises to enhance your understanding of Sindhi grammar.
 }}
@@ Line 149: / Line 211: @@
 [[Category:0-to-A1-Course]]
 [[Category:Sindhi-0-to-A1-Course]]
-<span gpt></span> <span model=gpt-3.5-turbo></span> <span temperature=1></span>
+<span gpt></span> <span model=gpt-3.5-turbo-16k></span> <span temperature=0.7></span>
+==Sources==
+* [https://sindhitutorials.com/english-sindhi-grammar/past-tense-tobe Past tense of ToBe - English Sindhi Grammar - SindhiTutorials]
+* [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/817895982313814293/ Introduction - English Sindhi Grammar - SindhiTutorials]
+* [https://sindhitutorials.com/english-sindhi-grammar/present-tense-tobe Present tense of ToBe - English Sindhi Grammar - SindhiTutorials]
@@ Line 166: / Line 235: @@
-<span class='maj'></span>
-==Sources==
-* [https://sindhitutorials.com/english-sindhi-grammar/past-tense-tobe Past tense of ToBe - English Sindhi Grammar - SindhiTutorials]
-* [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/817895982313814293/ Introduction - English Sindhi Grammar - SindhiTutorials]
-* [https://sindhitutorials.com/english-sindhi-grammar/present-tense-tobe Present tense of ToBe - English Sindhi Grammar - SindhiTutorials]
 {{Sindhi-Page-Bottom}}
 <span pgnav>
 {| class="wikitable pg_template_nav"

Difference between revisions of "Language/Sindhi/Grammar/Verbs-and-Tenses"

Latest revision as of 17:40, 22 June 2023

Introduction[edit | edit source]

Sindhi Verbs: An Overview[edit | edit source]

Tenses in Sindhi[edit | edit source]

Present Tense[edit | edit source]

Singular Subjects[edit | edit source]

Plural Subjects[edit | edit source]

Past Tense[edit | edit source]

Singular Subjects[edit | edit source]

Plural Subjects[edit | edit source]

Future Tense[edit | edit source]

Singular Subjects[edit | edit source]

Plural Subjects[edit | edit source]

Cultural Insights[edit | edit source]

Practice Exercises[edit | edit source]

Solutions and Explanations[edit | edit source]

Conclusion[edit | edit source]

Table of Contents - Sindhi Course - 0 to A1[edit source]

Sources[edit | edit source]

Other Lessons[edit | edit source]

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